The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Lessons for marine management derived from fisheries management practices". A PDF of the full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "CASE STUDY 2021 – Lessons for marine management derived from fisheries management practices" DESCRIPTION OF FOCUS FOR THE CASE STUDY This case study summarises key lessons from Australian fisheries management that are relevant to the management of natural marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments and resources more broadly and highlight opportunities for improved natural resource management. For example, Australian fisheries management has used innovative approaches to (i) reduce conflict in decision-making with defined targets and reference points (e.g. as part of harvest strategies), (ii) explore consequences of implementing different management decisions in fisheries systems (e.g. management strategy evaluation), (iii) apply the precautionary principle (e.g. ecological risk assessments), and (iv) consider a wider range and cumulative impacts, including climate change, on marine systems. The success of the arrangements is due to co-development with expertise-based consultative forums (e.g. Resource Advisory Groups, Management Advisory Committees) where the outputs and details of these approaches are considered, questioned and agreed in a transparent and collaborative manner. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Synthesis of literature published, and expert knowledge of the case study authors.

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Australia's Blue Economy". A PDF of the full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "CASE STUDY 2021 – Australia's Blue Economy" DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDY The ‘blue economy’ is an increasingly accepted term for ocean-based industries that maintain environmental and social stewardship and protection (UNEP 2016, Voyer et al 2018). [see attached Case Study for more] DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY tba

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Assessing cumulative effects and risks". A PDF of the full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "CASE STUDY 2021 – Assessing cumulative effects and risks" DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDY The Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) calls for consideration of direct, indirect and offsite impacts on biodiversity. Upstream, downstream and facilitated impacts are specifically defined in the Significant Impact Guidelines and the act allows for broad-scale strategic assessments . However, the EPBC Act does not explicitly address cumulative effects (Dales, 2011; Dunstan et al., 2020; Samuel, 2020). Multiple stressors impacting on multiple ecological values requires an ecosystem-based approach (Levin et al., 2009). This will require a systemic and integrated assessment of all pressures on marine and coastal systems (HLPO, 2020). [see attached Case Study for more] DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Synthesis of literature published in the last 5 years and expert knowledge of the case study authors.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Commonwealth commercial fisheries". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY Management of commercial fisheries is shared between the Commonwealth, states and the Northern Territory. In general, the Australian Government, through the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA), is responsible for commercial fishing beyond three nautical miles from the coast. Some Commonwealth fisheries target fish stocks that extend into the high seas and the Exclusive Economic Zones of other countries. These are jointly managed with other countries through conventions and agreements. Key commercial stocks in Commonwealth fisheries are managed under the Commonwealth Fisheries Harvest Strategy Policy (HSP). The HSP requires an evidence–based approach to setting sustainable catch levels to ensure stocks are maintained at ecologically sustainable levels and within this context, maximise economic returns to the Australian community. The Australian Government aims to implement an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management, which considers fisheries’ interactions with, and impacts on, bycatch species, habitats, communities and ecosystems. Bycatch species are managed under the Commonwealth Policy on Fisheries Bycatch (BCP) and in line with Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) requirements. The BCP aims to reduce bycatch and improve protection for vulnerable species; this is implemented through a risk management framework. PRESSURES/ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE The 2013 HSP review found the policy and guidelines improved the management of Commonwealth fisheries. The HSP is one of only a few comprehensive policies implemented to direct the development of harvest strategies across fisheries. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Fishery status reports data, 1992 to 2014 covering all Commonwealth fisheries (as described in Patterson et al 2015). The status assessments are underpinned by AFMA’s fishery catch and effort data and the data used in individual fish stock assessments.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Pressures on the marine environment associated with shipping". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its imports and exports. In 2013–14, approximately 1274 million tonnes of cargo were loaded and 151 million tonnes discharged at Australian wharves by 5499 vessels that made 28 714 port calls (BITRE 2015). As this shipping traverses Australian waters there is potential for adverse interactions with the marine environment across all regions (see Figure 1 in full case study attached). PRESSURES/ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE There is a risk of environmental damage from collision or grounding of vessels, and ship strike, which is a significant cause of anthropogenic mortality to whales worldwide. In addition, small recreational vessels regularly injure dugongs, turtles, and dolphins. Known Australian ship strike incidents in recent times have predominately involved humpback whales and based on behaviour and distribution there is potential for mother-calf pairs to be particularly susceptible. There have also been reported incidents with southern right whales, sperm whales and pygmy blue whales. Given the speed and size of modern shipping, collisions with whales have a high probability of being fatal. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Ship strike reports derived from the Australian Marine Mammal Centre National Marine Mammal Database, Vessel tracking data (AIS records).

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "traditional management of marine resources in Torres Strait". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY The Torres Strait region is renowned for its ecological complexity and biodiversity, providing a multitude of habitats and niches for the highly diverse Indo-Pacific marine flora and fauna, including dugongs and marine turtles. The Torres Strait is of enormous significance from an Indigenous cultural resource management perspective. Marine and island resources traditionally have been, and continue to be, vital to Torres Strait Islanders from a subsistence and cultural viewpoint. Torres Strait Islanders have a strong and abiding connection with their islands and sea country, governed by the unique Ailan Kastom (Island Custom). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Relevant peer review publications and reports. Case study based on literature review.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of commercial fishing". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) is a common objective across all Australian jurisdictions resulting in a good level of understanding of the direct pressures commercial fishing has on the marine environment. All Australian jurisdictions have introduced one or more measures to address those pressures that are increasingly based on risk assessment and implementing a management response. These include harvest strategies for the main commercial species, adaptive management involving expert judgement, more quantitative management strategy evaluation, ecosystem modelling and broader ecological risk assessments. There is now a greater understanding of the effects of climate change and ocean acidification on the marine environment and the need to consider this when determining appropriate fisheries management responses. However, management agencies are yet to integrate all the available science into their management systems. Likewise, current habitat analysis work will identify the emerging priorities in managing the environmental effects on habitats of commercial fishing. Spatial management has been introduced to mitigate the impacts on both vulnerable species and habitats where identified i.e. gulper shark closures in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery and the introduction of gillnet zoning closures to limit interactions with the Australian sea lion. Similarly, spatial closures that specifically prohibit trawling within seagrass and other sensitive nursery habitats are often used for many fisheries including, for example, the Shark Bay and Exmouth Gulf prawn trawl fisheries in Western Australia. Specific mitigation measures for protected species are also used to reduce the effects of commercial fishing. This includes such things as: seal and turtle excluder devices, square mesh panels in trawls, tori lines and other sea bird deterrent devices. Education programs for the fishing industry have also been improved to provide a greater understanding of how to avoid and/or handle protected species. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on relevant literature and reports on current management measures associated with commercial fishing – a list is provided in the attached Expert Assessment. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Understanding of fisheries and effective management frameworks is reasonably high and improving. • Planning associated with management of pressure: Improved planning processes directed towards research and risk-based assessment processes are resulting in more robust outcomes. • Input for informing management of pressure: Greater use of technology for data collection informs management decisions and measures the trajectory of trends over time. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Improved processes have been developed to expand the range of fishery assessment tools with an increased use of risk-based approaches. • Outputs from management framework in place: Biennial State of key Australian Fish Stocks Report form the primary assessment output for national commercial fisheries. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Improvements in data gathering and reporting direct resources towards commercial fishing operations that pose the highest risk to the marine environment. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Management Effectiveness of Commercial fishing". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Management Effectiveness - Commercial Fishing" DESCRIPTION OF THE APPROACH TO MANAGING THE PRESSURE All Australian jurisdictions understand the direct pressures that commercial fishing has on the marine environment. Almost all management agencies across Australia are using evidence-based processes such as harvest strategies for commercially important species to determine sustainable catch levels, and risk-based assessments of the broader ecosystem effects of fishing. Implementation, however, is not uniform with some stocks having an unknown sustainability status. The Australian partnership approach between managers, commercial fishers, scientists and other stakeholders is recognised globally as a standard for fisheries management (Marchal et al., 2016). Management agencies rely to varying degrees on co-funding of management costs from industry. Increased use of risk-based intelligence-gathering and reporting of fishing activity, and uptake of vessel monitoring systems is benefitting compliance. Australian jurisdictions have sought to implement single jurisdiction stock management where possible. Historically, the Offshore Constitutional Settlement has been the primary means to do so. More recently the emphasis has been to develop common (cross-jurisdictional) stock assessments and harvest strategies for shared stocks without changes in jurisdiction. Spatial management is used widely to reduce conflicts between sectors and increasingly to reduce the fishing impacts on vulnerable species and habitats. Some closures prohibit specific fishing methods within sensitive habitats. An increasing range of mechanisms and technical tools are being used to reduce interactions with seabirds, marine mammals, reptiles and other vulnerable species. Such bycatch reduction devices include tori lines, sprayers, seal and turtle excluder devices. Management agencies and industry recognise that climate change is affecting Australian fisheries, and the changing nature of marine ecosystems is receiving greater attention. However, implementation challenges remain. Management across sectors remains a challenge in terms of both of accurate data collection to understand stock status, and resource sharing. Cross-sectoral management with recreational sector continues to improve with several jurisdictions committed to regular surveys and rules around catch limits that better reflect stock levels. Traditional fishing is being increasingly recognised, but there remains no common agreement between indigenous Australians and jurisdictions about how to move forward. A range of best practice guidelines for fisheries management have been developed (Penney et al. 2016; Hobday et al. 2019; Sloane et al. 2014) and are steadily being deployed. Small-scale/data-limited fisheries are prevalent and remain a challenge (Hill et al., submitted; Dowling et al. 2016). Jurisdictions have begun to use a range of processes and decision-support tools to better ensure the sustainability of these fisheries including harvest strategies. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT not supplied 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Approach • Assessment grade: Effective Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Adequate Comparability with 2016: Somewhat comparable. Increased uptake of harvest strategies and ecological risk assessments by most jurisdictions. • Outputs • Assessment grade: Effective Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Adequate Comparability with

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of climate variability and climate change". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT Anthropogenic ocean warming, superimposed on natural climate variations – in particular El Niño–Southern Oscillation and decadal variability – and ocean acidification pose risks to Australia’s coral reef ecosystems, giant kelp and other habitats. In response, there have been significant shifts in the ranges of various invertebrates and fish. Recent reviews of climate change impacts and adaptation on Australia’s commercial marine fisheries and marine ecosystems discuss the implications for marine management. On the Great Barrier Reef, rising summer sea temperatures and steadily increasing ocean acidity increase the risk of mass coral bleaching. The cumulative impacts of economic activities – port dredging and runoff of sediment, nutrients and fertiliser from agriculture, for example – cause coral reefs to become stressed and more prone to the effects of climate change. More broadly around Australia, ocean warming and changes in currents are affecting fisheries and aquaculture. World-leading research on these risks is ongoing through Australian universities and research institutes and in consequence the understanding of physical processes is high. Understanding of the economic and cultural significance of the marine environment for Australia is lower, but considerable value is attributed to coastal regions in temperate and tropical Australia. Understanding of the management strategies required to combat the risks is lower still due at least in part to its complexity. Research is ongoing, but a greater investment in developing, implementing and monitoring strategies, monitoring and understanding change, and systematic acquisition and storage of data, is required. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on published literature – a list is provided in the attached Expert Assessment. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Understanding of climate variability and its management is reasonably high and improving with government funding for well-established and internationally-respected institutions. • Planning associated with management of pressure: In-depth planning for icons such as the Great Barrier Reef continues, and commercial fisheries are aware of the need to plan around climate variability. Elsewhere efforts are more patchy. • Input for informing management of pressure: Short-term funding cycles are a continuing threat to effective management for long-term goals and sustainability. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Management tools and approaches exist and in some cases are applied; stronger regulation is required for long-term environmental health. • Outputs from management framework in place: Conflicting interests between economic development and the environment are leading to a gradual long-term environmental declines, which current management is not addressing. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Further policy and management controls are required to address declining environmental health and emerging risks of climate change. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Not specified. Review of additional literature has been conducted since 2011 SoE Assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Marine heatwaves". A PDF of the full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "CASE STUDY 2021 – Marine heatwaves" DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDY The physical characteristics of the ocean, such as temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and pH are clearly changing in Australia’s oceans as a result of climate change. Summaries from the IPCC and other publications clearly show long term trends that are clearly attributable to increased greenhouse gases. The southeast and southwest of Australia are global warming hotspots (Hobday & Pecl, 2014), with rates of warming above the global average. More recently, extreme events in the ocean environment have received considerable attention as they often cause widespread ecosystem impact and represent examples into future environmental conditions. Marine heatwaves, intense upwelling, deoxygenation, and coastal flooding are examples of extreme events and have already affected habitats around more than 40% of the Australian coastline (Babcock et al. 2019). Periods of extreme ocean warm-water events known as marine heatwaves (MHWs) can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and industries. The formation of MHWs is a result of heat flux into a region from the atmosphere, or via advection of warm water, often from lower latitudes (Holbrook et al. 2019). MHWs are widely defined based on differences with expected temperatures for the location and time of year, and so may occur during any season, not just summer (Hobday et al 2016). A quantitative MHW definition now often used is when seawater temperatures exceed a seasonally varying threshold (the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days (Hobday et al 2016). Based on this definition, MHWs increased in frequency (34%) and duration (17%) from 1925 to 2016, resulting in a 54% increase in annual MHW days globally (Oliver et al 2018). These trends can largely be explained by increases in mean ocean temperatures (Oliver et al. 2019), with further increases in MHW days projected to occur under continued global warming with many parts of the ocean reaching a near-permanent MHW state by the late 21st century (Oliver et al. 2019). ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE To aid in the description of MHWs, a categorisation system analogous to earthquake or cyclones has been developed (Hobday et al. 2018). Based on this system, Australia has experienced strong marine heatwaves in recent years, including Western Australia in 2011 (Wernberg et al 2016), the Coral Sea and northern Australia in 2016 (Oliver et al 2017), and the Tasman Sea in 2015/16 (Oliver et al 2017). Coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef was associated with marine heatwaves in successive years (Hughes et al 2018) resulting in impaired recruitment and recovery of reefs (Hughes et al 2019). The contribution of climate change to marine heatwaves can be calculated using the fraction of attributable risk method, which has been used for extreme events since around 2005 (Oliver et al. 2017; Perkins-Kirkpatrick et al. 2019). For example, the Tasman Sea 2015/16 MHW was over 300 times more likely as a result of climate change. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Literature and www.marineheatwaves.org/tracker