The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of ecological processes – algal blooms, jellyfish blooms". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT --Algal Blooms-- Phytoplankton produce half the oxygen we breathe and sustain our fisheries. However, some species produce toxins when they proliferate, and can discolour the water resulting in obvious blooms. These Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) can have serious economic, health and environmental impacts. In summer 2015/2016, there was a bloom of Alexandrium tamarense along the east coast of Tasmania – the most toxic bloom in 40 years. It contaminated mussels, oysters, scallops and ultimately rock lobsters – and led to closures lasting 4 months. This followed a HAB bloom in Tasmania in 2013 that cost $23 million. Because of their impact on the environment they are the most studied of algal species that bloom, and as a result this assessment focuses on this group of algae. There is strong scientific consensus that eutrophication is the primary factor stimulating HABs. In addition, new toxic species can be introduced through ballast water exchange and tropical species are moving poleward into new areas in Australia. --Jellyfish Blooms-- Jellyfish are important and often conspicuous components of ecosystems. Although dense jellyfish blooms are natural in healthy systems and there is debate about whether jellyfish populations are increasing globally, persistent blooms are known to be sensitive indicators of degraded systems. Jellyfish outbreaks can cause a number of deleterious effects including losses in tourist revenue through beach closures and even death of bathers (through stings); power outages following the blockage of cooling intakes at coastal power plants; burst fishing nets and contaminated catches; killing of farmed fish; and reduction in commercial fish abundance through competition and predation. The two primary human pressures that exacerbate jellyfish blooms are: 1. Overfishing, particularly of small pelagic species such as anchovy and sardine, which releases predation pressure on young jellyfish; and 2. Eutrophication, where increased nutrients lead to more plankton food for jellyfish. Problematic jellyfish blooms primarily occur in bays and harbours, areas covered under the coasts chapter. This assessment will concentrate on those data available from nearshore and shelf waters for which there are currently data available. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT IMOS plankton data – both from the National Reference Stations and the Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder survey. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Not previously assessed.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – Epipelagic fish species". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL SPECIES/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Australia’s coastal small pelagic fishes (<50 cm) include species such as Australian Sardines, Maray, Blue and Sandy Sprats, Australian anchovy, scads, Jack Mackerel, hardyheads, silversides, Blue mackerel, Australian Herring and Redbait. Tropical and temperate assemblages are comprised of different species and there are also regional differences in species composition (Hobday et al. 2009). This assessment refers only to temperate species in the East, South-east and South-west regions. Blue Mackerel, Common Jack Mackerel, Redbait and Australian Sardine (off eastern Australia only) are targeted by the Commonwealth Small Pelagic Fishery. The SPF is managed in two Zones: East spanning half of the East and eastern South-east regions and the West spanning the South west and western half of South-east). State fisheries primarily target Australian Sardine but may also take Australian Anchovy, Blue Mackerel, sprats and Maray. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on data and analyses published in the peer review literature, stock assessment reports and minutes of the meetings of the Small Pelagic Fishery Scientific Panel. Details of specific data sets used to generate the assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Additional fishery catch data, more recent stock assessments.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of ecological processes – trophic structures and relationships". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT For this assessment, food web structure and function as defined by diet and modelling studies (which synthesis much of the available information) have been used to evaluate the status and trends for trophic structures and relationships. The status and outlook for the structure of Australian marine ecosystems is highly variable. Food webs are naturally dynamic, through time and space (e.g. Griffiths et al. 2009), and human pressure on them has varied around Australia over the past two centuries, altering trophic structures to differing degrees (Dell et al. 2013, GBRMPA 2014). Food webs studies have primarily focused on coastal and shelf waters (e.g. Salini et al 1998, Bulman et al. 2001, DofWWA 2009), with much less coverage of deep water food webs. Diet studies have only occurred intermittently and few studies have been subsequently repeated (e.g. recent resampling of fish diets on the shelf of SE Australia; CSIRO unpublished). Consequently, understanding the true magnitude of inter-annual variation in diets is low and there is little capacity to be sure of dietary changes through time. Modelling studies (Fulton et al. 2005, Klaer 2005) suggest there has been trophic restructuring of food webs in south-eastern Australia over the last century, particularly as a result of the intensification of commercial fisheries up to the 1990s. The reduction in fishing pressure, particularly over the last 5-10 years (Flood et al. 2014, Patterson et al. 2015) will likely, eventually, allow the recovery of trophic structures. However, a complete recovery is unlikely given the multitude of on-going pressures (e.g. remaining fishing pressure, both recreational and commercial, shipping, coastal habitat modification, pollution, etc.) and because some highly depleted species (e.g. eastern gemfish) have failed to recover from past overexploitation; which itself may be related to shifts in trophic connections with predators and prey (TSSC 2009). In addition, climate change is reshaping south eastern ecosystems, with shifts in species ranges (Sunday et al. 2015) and the realisation of new trophic interactions (e.g. shifts in octopus diets; Briceno et al. 2015), as omnivorous species appear to shift more rapidly than carnivores (Sunday et al. 2015). Eastern Australian ecosystems, including the Great Barrier Reef are highly modified (Butler and Jernakoff 1999, GBRMPA 2014). Amongst the most obviously shifted systems are around population centres and in the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBRMPA 2014). As elsewhere, fishing pressure has eased over the past 5 years, but other pressures (e.g. from increasing development) have increased (AIMS 2014). Overall trophic structures likely remain highly modified, both by past and present removal of predatory species and shifts in abundance of basal species, due to eutrophication or habitat removal (GBRMPA 2014, Fulton and Gorton 2014). The ecosystems of northern, western, southwestern and southern Australia see less direct, and spatially more variable, pressure than those in the east and south east. Over the past 3 decades, fishing pressure in the region has significantly declined, and has continued to do so (though at a reduced rate) over the past 5 years (Prince et al. 2008, Patterson et al. 2014, Fletcher and Santoro 2015). Development of other sectors (e.g. shipping) has grown, but largely concentrated on specific locations (AIMS

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of habitats and communities – seabed, inner shelf (0 - 25 m)". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT The inner shelf seabed consist of a mix of habitats that range from rocky reef through coral reef, seagrass, algae and soft sediment, although this assessment focusses on open coast unvegetated soft sediment habitats on the inner shelf (0-25 m depth) as the other inshore habitats are assessed in other SoE metrics. Note that this assessment differs slightly from that in 2011 that focussed on the 0-50 m depth range, and it is assumed was also confined to soft sediment habitat. It concluded that the overall condition was good at a national scale, but poor in the SE and East, was likely to be stable, but it was based on limited evidence and trends from the previous assessment. Inner shelf soft sediment habitats are usually dominated by coarse to fine sand in exposed coast locations but can grade to finer silts in sheltered habitats with nearby estuarine inputs and with depth. In specific locations, significant habitat mapping and/or biodiversity sampling programs have substantially improved knowledge of the spatial distribution of these habitats, and have provided an initial description of their current condition (e.g. Barrett et al. 2001; Pitcher et al. 2007ab, 2016; Jordan et al. 2010, Kangas et al. 2007, Currie et al. , 2003, 2009). However, at a national scale there is currently no integration and synthesis of this information on which to base condition assessments. In addition, there is little information to assess the extent of temporal trends or habitat degradation from baseline conditions. Despite this, there are a number of threats that can be identified and assessed to determine the potential current trends. These include trawling (through physical disturbance of the seabed), sedimentation/nitrification, and the spread of introduced pest species. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessment is based on data and analyses published in peer reviewed literature and agency reports. Details of specific data sets used to generate the assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Not clear on what basis and how the 2011 was conducted. Note that this assessment differs slightly from the 2011 assessment which was focused on the 0-50 m depth range, and it is assumed was also confined to soft sediment habitat.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – seabirds". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT There are presently 57 species of seabirds known to breed in and around Australia and the external territories of Cocos (Keeling) and Christmas Island, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the Coral Sea islands. These 57 species are comprised of penguins (1 species), albatrosses (1 species), petrels, shearwaters and storm-petrels (19 species), boobies, tropicbirds, frigatebirds, cormorants and pelican (16 species) and gulls, tern, and noddies (20 species). Another 130 species of seabirds have been recorded in Australia, either as non-breeding or vagrant. Shorebirds are not considered here, nor are issues associated with nesting or onshore breeding colonies as these are assessed under the Coasts chapter. Species breeding on subantarctic islands and the Antarctic continent are assessed under the Antarctic chapter. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment was based on data and analyses published in the peer reviewed literature and agency reports. Details on the specific data products used in this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Unclear how the 2011 assessment was carried out and on what data. There is very little data on trends in populations available and so the trend cannot be regarded as stable but rather unclear.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of habitats and communities - water column, inner shelf (0 - 25 m)". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Based on biomass the major communities found in the water column are phytoplankton>bacteria>zooplankton>fish (Marchant 2002). The water column is the habitat and the major determinants of quality for most pelagic organisms can be considered to be temperature (T), salinity (S), light, nutrients, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and food availability. The inner shelf waters around Australia are generally warm, mostly saline, well illuminated, low in nutrients, and phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish abundance. The inner shelf is also the pelagic marine habitat most exposed to human induced pressures and has local habitats that range from heavily disturbed to pristine. The capability of this habitat to support the existing flora and fauna can be considered to be under threat (e.g. Game et al. 2009) from: inputs from the terrestrial environment (e.g. sediments in runoff or due to increased erosion, nutrients, wastes), harvesting of biota, invasive species, infrastructure development (e.g. impoundments, harbours, hardening), mariculture, mining, oil and gas extraction, climate change (warming, falling DO, decreasing pH). There are many areas of local habitat degradation, with the most impacted areas tending to be embayments and estuaries with significant population pressures and limited exchange (e.g. Alyazichi et al., 2015; Mckinley et al., 2011). In spite of improvements in the management of these types of pressures the magnitude of the growth in mineral exports, agriculture exports and population growth would suggest that development impacts will have risen. At the same time across many jurisdictions improvements in sewage treatment and disposal mean that potentially dangerous pathogens are increasingly rare. For example in 2015 96% of NSW open beaches with high rates of recreational use were rated good or very good (NSW EPA, 2015). At a larger geographic scale our shelf waters are experiencing increasing impacts from global pressures such as warming. Shelf waters from Port Hedland to Cape Howe have risen ~ 1°C from 1993 to 2013 (Foster et al., 2014), and portions of the SW region were 3°C warmer during February 2011 than normal (Pearce and Feng 2013). There is evidence that dissolved oxygen has declined (Thompson et al. 2009) and will continue to decline due to warming (Talley et al., 2016). This is likely to lead to more losses of marine fauna due to low oxygen; such as the unprecedented event during 2015 in Cockburn Sound (Pattiaratchi 2016). Recent blooms of toxic phytoplankton in regions where they never bloomed before (Campbell et al., 2013) and the SE shellfish that have suffered badly from disease outbreaks (Hooper et al., 2007; Lewis et al., 2012). There is evidence of widespread responses to climate related pressures across the major types of biota, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish (e.g. Johnson et al. 2011, Thompson et al. 2016) as well as our coral reefs under increased stress from rising temperatures and declining pH (Mongin et al., 2016). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Data are computed from the level 3 (L3) daily global products using one merging method following Maritorena and Siegel, (2005). Details can be found at http://www.globcolour.info/products_description.html Phytoplankton and zooplankton data are from Australia’s National Reference Stations operated by the Integrated Marine Observing System. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of climate variability and climate change". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT Anthropogenic ocean warming, superimposed on natural climate variations – in particular El Niño–Southern Oscillation and decadal variability – and ocean acidification pose risks to Australia’s coral reef ecosystems, giant kelp and other habitats. In response, there have been significant shifts in the ranges of various invertebrates and fish. Recent reviews of climate change impacts and adaptation on Australia’s commercial marine fisheries and marine ecosystems discuss the implications for marine management. On the Great Barrier Reef, rising summer sea temperatures and steadily increasing ocean acidity increase the risk of mass coral bleaching. The cumulative impacts of economic activities – port dredging and runoff of sediment, nutrients and fertiliser from agriculture, for example – cause coral reefs to become stressed and more prone to the effects of climate change. More broadly around Australia, ocean warming and changes in currents are affecting fisheries and aquaculture. World-leading research on these risks is ongoing through Australian universities and research institutes and in consequence the understanding of physical processes is high. Understanding of the economic and cultural significance of the marine environment for Australia is lower, but considerable value is attributed to coastal regions in temperate and tropical Australia. Understanding of the management strategies required to combat the risks is lower still due at least in part to its complexity. Research is ongoing, but a greater investment in developing, implementing and monitoring strategies, monitoring and understanding change, and systematic acquisition and storage of data, is required. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on published literature – a list is provided in the attached Expert Assessment. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Understanding of climate variability and its management is reasonably high and improving with government funding for well-established and internationally-respected institutions. • Planning associated with management of pressure: In-depth planning for icons such as the Great Barrier Reef continues, and commercial fisheries are aware of the need to plan around climate variability. Elsewhere efforts are more patchy. • Input for informing management of pressure: Short-term funding cycles are a continuing threat to effective management for long-term goals and sustainability. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Management tools and approaches exist and in some cases are applied; stronger regulation is required for long-term environmental health. • Outputs from management framework in place: Conflicting interests between economic development and the environment are leading to a gradual long-term environmental declines, which current management is not addressing. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Further policy and management controls are required to address declining environmental health and emerging risks of climate change. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Not specified. Review of additional literature has been conducted since 2011 SoE Assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of habitats and communities – seabed, outer shelf (25 m - 250 m)". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT The outer shelf seabed consists primarily of unconsolidated sediments but also includes a mix of other habitats that range from stable gravels and rocky reef through mesophotic and relict coral reefs. However, the condition of several of these habitats are assessed via other SoE metrics, including deepwater corals and sponges, bryozoan reef, seagrasses, algae and coral reefs, so this assessment focusses on the condition of sedimentary habitats on the mid to outer shelf (25-250 m depth). Indeed, depths of 25 m to 50 m are commonly found on the inner shelf as well, so despite the “Outer shelf” in the title, this assessment is based on all waters on the shelf deeper than 25m. Note that this assessment differs slightly from the 2011 assessment that focussed on the 50-200 m depth range, and it isn’t clear from the 2011 assessment notes whether that assessment was confined to soft sediment habitat; it is assumed that this was the case. The 2011 assessment indicated the overall condition was good at a national scale but was poor in the SE and East, and that these conditions were likely to be stable- based on limited evidence and trends based on the previous assessment. Given that bottom trawling is likely to be the main pressure on soft-sediment habitat in this depth range, it is assumed that the 2011 assessment was based on perceptions of regional patterns in expected trawl impact. Soft sediment habitats in the 25-250 m depth range are usually dominated by coarse to fine sand in exposed coast locations at shallower depths that tends to grade to finer sand/silts with increasing depth, but with a strong overlay on this gradient whereby increasing seabed stress in response to swells and currents sweeps away fine fractions thus leaving coarser sands and gravels. Muddy and unstable sediments tend to have little epibenthic cover, but such bio-genic cover can be higher in stable coarse sediments where currents are stronger but not excessive. In addition, at shallower depths (25-50m) the seabed may have little epibenthic cover due to disturbance by swells, but this cover may increase as wave energy declines below 50 m and the fauna may include a moderate cover of sponges, bryozoans, octocorals and hydroids. Upwellings and productivity may also be an important driver of shelf bio-genic habitats. Recent IMOS AUV surveys using high resolution imagery have indicated that a turfing layer of bryozoans, hydroids and other epibenthic fauna may be an extensive feature in many offshore locations. While cover of habitat-forming epifauna is lower on fine sediments, it is often still a significant component on coarser sediments that enhances benthic biodiversity in deep shelf waters by providing complex structural living spaces for a large number of species from a variety of taxa (Pitcher et al. 2007a, Buhl-Mortensen et al. 2010, Fromont et al. 2012). Such biological assemblages are generally fragile and readily disturbed by activities such as benthic trawling and large storm events. Nevertheless, the primarily unconsolidated sediments of the outer shelf seabed tend to be dominated by mobile invertebrates such as crustaceans, echinoderms and molluscs, with deposit/detritus feeding types typifying finer sediments and suspension feeding types typifying coarser sediments. Our knowledge of these taxa in Australian waters at shelf depths stems mainly from a few

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of non-indigenous/non-endemic species – number and abundance of introduced species". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT There are over 250 introduced marine plants and animals established in Australian waters (see marine pests.gov.au). Some have hitch-hiked to Australian waters on the hulls of vessels of all types from yachts to commercial ships, or in their ballast water. Others have been introduced to support local aquaculture, with the aquarium industry another vector. Some species are listed on the National Introduced Marine Pest Information System and are assessed under the ‘Number and abundance of NIMPIS-listed species’ assessment. This assessment covers those species not currently on the list. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT This assessment is based on peer-review papers and reports as well as information on the marine pests website: see http://www.marinepests.gov.au. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence or consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence or consensus too low to make an assessment CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The 2016 assessment is similar to the 2011 assessment. With very little information on most species abundances and no long-term monitoring of populations with which clear trends could be determined it was considered appropriate to assign a trend of ‘unclear’.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of ecological communities/habitats – offshore banks, shoals, islands". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL HABITAT/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assemblages of plants and animals found on offshore banks, and shoals around islands, in the 0-25 m depth range. This largely relates to reefs in the Coral Sea, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, and the offshore reefs in the north and north-west. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Reef Life Survey data were used for the current status assessment, with extensive spatial coverage of sites on most offshore banks, shoals and Island around the continent where the seabed rises to within 20 m of the surface. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high-quality evidence or high level of consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The 2016 assessment is based on an updated and expanded dataset.