The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "State and Trend of whales". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - whales" DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT A total of 27 species of whales (two of which comprise a number of subspecies) have been documented from Australian waters. A number (e.g. sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus) are distributed nationally, others are restricted to particular latitudes (e.g. Bryde’s whale, Balaenoptera edeni) and others only seasonally utilise Australian waters (e.g. southern right whale, Eubalaena australis). Since the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report, the occurrence of Omura’s whale, (Balaenoptera omurai; Cerchio et al. 2019) has been confirmed in Australian waters and new insights provided into the spatial distribution of breeding humpback whales (Megaptera novaengliae; Irvine et al. 2018) in particular, expansion of breeding/calving habitat (Torre-Williams et al. 2019), and the spatial distributions of southern right whales (Mackay et al. 2020) and Shepherd’s beaked whales (Tasmacetus shepherdi; Donnelly et al. 2018). Sightings of humpback whales have been gradually increasing in waters off the Northern Territory, indicating a return to these waters post exploitation (C. Palmer personal communication). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessment based on review of literature published since the 2016 SoE assessment – see references for spatial and temporal coverage of data incorporated into assessments. 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2021 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2016 assessment • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Baleen whales Assessment grade: Poor Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus • 2011 • Humpback whales Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Increasing Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus • 2011 • Toothed whales Assessment grade: Poor Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT Assessment has not changed.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – dolphins and porpoises". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Following taxonomic standards, 20 dolphin species in the Family Delphinidae and one species in the Family Phocoenidae occur in Australian waters. A number of these species (e.g. common bottlenose dolphins) are distributed nationally, others are restricted to particular latitudes (e.g. dusky dolphin) and others consist of populations that are highly restricted to embayments and tributaries within particular regions (e.g. the endemic snub-fin dolphin). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT This assessment is based on peer-review papers and reports provided by a series of researchers working on dolphin and porpoises in Australia. Data on state and trends and associated spatial and temporal coverage are detailed in the publications provided in the reference list. Specific data products used to generate the assessment are not listed. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The 2016 assessment is similar to the 2011 assessment. With very little information on most species abundances and no long-term monitoring of populations with which clear trends could be determined it was considered appropriate to alter the trend assignment to ‘unclear’ rather than ‘stable’.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – seabirds". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT There are presently 57 species of seabirds known to breed in and around Australia and the external territories of Cocos (Keeling) and Christmas Island, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the Coral Sea islands. These 57 species are comprised of penguins (1 species), albatrosses (1 species), petrels, shearwaters and storm-petrels (19 species), boobies, tropicbirds, frigatebirds, cormorants and pelican (16 species) and gulls, tern, and noddies (20 species). Another 130 species of seabirds have been recorded in Australia, either as non-breeding or vagrant. Shorebirds are not considered here, nor are issues associated with nesting or onshore breeding colonies as these are assessed under the Coasts chapter. Species breeding on subantarctic islands and the Antarctic continent are assessed under the Antarctic chapter. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment was based on data and analyses published in the peer reviewed literature and agency reports. Details on the specific data products used in this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Unclear how the 2011 assessment was carried out and on what data. There is very little data on trends in populations available and so the trend cannot be regarded as stable but rather unclear.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – Epipelagic fish species". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL SPECIES/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Australia’s coastal small pelagic fishes (<50 cm) include species such as Australian Sardines, Maray, Blue and Sandy Sprats, Australian anchovy, scads, Jack Mackerel, hardyheads, silversides, Blue mackerel, Australian Herring and Redbait. Tropical and temperate assemblages are comprised of different species and there are also regional differences in species composition (Hobday et al. 2009). This assessment refers only to temperate species in the East, South-east and South-west regions. Blue Mackerel, Common Jack Mackerel, Redbait and Australian Sardine (off eastern Australia only) are targeted by the Commonwealth Small Pelagic Fishery. The SPF is managed in two Zones: East spanning half of the East and eastern South-east regions and the West spanning the South west and western half of South-east). State fisheries primarily target Australian Sardine but may also take Australian Anchovy, Blue Mackerel, sprats and Maray. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on data and analyses published in the peer review literature, stock assessment reports and minutes of the meetings of the Small Pelagic Fishery Scientific Panel. Details of specific data sets used to generate the assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Additional fishery catch data, more recent stock assessments.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of habitats and communities – Seamounts". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT/COMMUNITY FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Seamounts (undersea mountains, often with volcanic origin) provide ‘oasis’ habitats of hard substratum and are widely considered to represent sites of elevated biomass and productivity in the deep ocean. Their habitats can support dense aggregations of corals and associated high biodiversity; these represent vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME) (e.g. UNGA 2006; Clark et al 2011). The geological definition of a seamount (elevation of >1000 m) has no relevance to biodiversity valuation because smaller features are frequently found to support high, if not the highest, biodiversity. An ecological definition (e.g. Pitcher et al. 2007) is recommended. Australia’s marine realm encompasses many seamounts; the best known are the Tasmanian seamounts and the Tasmantid seamount chain. Additional seamounts have been discovered and mapped on the Lord Howe Rise and the Norfolk Ridge, as well as on Australia’s southern margin in the GAB. Seamount communities to ~1500 m depth in the south-east and south-west regions are associated with biogenic habitats formed mostly by the stony coral Solenosmilia variabilis (Koslow et al 2000; Thresher et al. 2014). Its matrix of dead and life coral, built up to a layer of at least 1.6 m thickness in places, forms a habitat for other corals, urchins, brittle- and snakestars and crustaceans (Thresher et al. 2014). Communities and habitats on deeper reaches of seamounts (>1500 m) are less well studied; they are usually less diverse and sparser, although areas of extraordinary high biomass have been observed in the south-east region (Thresher et al. 2014). The seamounts in the Tasmantid chain are mapped and well used by various commercial fisheries, but their epifaunal communities remain poorly documented (Williams et al. 2012). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT This assessment is based on data derived from Marine National Facility Surveys described in MarLIN (http://www.marine.csiro.au/marlin/search.html) and accessible through the CSIRO Data trawler (http://www.cmar.csiro.au/data/trawler/). Links to specific data sets are provided in the "On-line resources" section of this record. • Voyage of Discovery north-west (SS05/2007) • Voyage of Discovery south-west (SS07/2005 & SS10/2005) • Tasmanian seamounts surveys (SS01/2000, SS04/2006 & SS02/2007, SS01/2008 & TT01/2008) • Habitat Mapping (SS01/2000, SS04/2004) • Habitat and population assessment of giant crabs (2003 - 2005) • NORFANZ survey of Lord Howe Rise and Norfolk Ridge (TAN0308 - NORFANZ) 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Very good-Poor Assessment trend: Stable- Improving Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT There is substantial information on the impact of trawling on seamounts in the South-East Marine Region available.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – tuna and billfish". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT This assessment focuses on those tuna and billfish species that are targeted by commercial fisheries and for which stock assessments are available. These include albacore, bigeye, skipjack, southern bluefin and yellowfin tuna, broadbill swordfish and striped and blue marlin. In Australian waters, southern bluefin tuna are caught predominantly by commercial fisheries in the south-west and temperate east bioregions with recreational catches also occurring in the north-west and south-east bioregions. Yellowfin, bigeye and albacore tuna, swordfish and striped marlin are predominantly caught by commercial and recreational fisheries in the north-west, south-west, temperate east and north east bioregions with recreational catches also occurring in the north and in the south-east seasonally. Blue marlin is caught recreationally in the north-east, temperate east, south-west and north-west bioregions with commercial catches of the species not permitted DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on stock assessment information produced in working papers provided to the scientific committees of relevant RFMOs and annual reports of the scientific committees and working groups of relevant RFMOs. Assessments are based on a variety of data relating to species population dynamics, spatial dynamics, fishery catches, survey and mark-recapture experiments covering the spatial area of each of the RFMOs and spanning varying temporal periods. Details on the specific data products used in this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are notcomparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Since the 2011 chapter, some management frameworks have been modified so both reporting and assessment frameworks have been altered providing clearer views of current stock status. The 2011 assessment doesn’t appear to have referenced available stock assessments which provide the best and most robust indications of status for each of the species. The 2011 assessment stated that there was limited evidence and limited consensus and that the condition of stocks in the south-west was poor and declining, which doesn’t reflect stock assessments conducted at the time. Since the 2011 assessment, stock assessments available for the species have been updated and new data streams are contributing to stock assessments.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – sharks and rays (elasmobranchs)". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Conservation of elasmobranchs is an increasing priority as evidence of overexploitation of some species becomes increasingly apparent (e.g., Stevens et al. 2000, Graham et al. 2001, Clarke et al. 2006, Dulvy et al. 2008, Dulvy et al. 2014). Australia has ~307 elasmobranch species that occur in marine environments in all bioregions, with about half being endemic. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Data primarily collected from an expert panel of elasmobranch researchers and fisheries scientists during an IUCN Shark Specialist Group Red List workshop in February 2015 (report still in prep) as part of a FRDC Shark Report Card project (www.sharkreportcard.org) 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Largely agrees with 2011 SOE assessment, however there are few data available on population abundances or trends for most species so trend can only be regarded as unclear rather than stable.

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "State and Trend of dolphins and porpoises". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Dolphins and Porpoises" DESCRIPTION OF TAXONOMIC GROUP FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Following taxonomic standards, 20 dolphin species in the Family Delphinidae and one species in the Family Phocoenidae are known to occur in Australian waters (Table 1). A number of these species (e.g. common dolphins, Delphinus delphis) are distributed nationally, others are restricted to particular latitudes (e.g. dusky dolphin, Lagenorhychus obscurus) and others consist of populations that are highly restricted to embayments and tributaries within particular regions (e.g. the endemic Australian snubfin dolphin, Orcaella heinsohni). Since the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report further insights into the spatial distribution of Australian snubfin dolphin (Blue Planet Marine 2019, Bouchet et al. 2021), Australian humpback dolphins (Sousa sahulensis; Parra and Cagnazzi 2015, Hanf et al. 2016, Hunt et al. 2017; Raudino et al. 2018a, Raudino et al. 2018b, Blue Planet Marine 2019, Burns et al. 2019, Hunt et al. 2020), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus, Raudino et al. 2018a, Blue Planet Marine 2019, Burns et al. 2019, Haughey et al. 2020), common dolphins (Delphinus delphis, Mason et al. 2016) and orca (Orcinus orca, Jones et al. 2019, Salgado-Kent et al. 2020) have been established. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessment based on review of literature published since the 2016 SoE assessment – see references for spatial and temporal coverage of data incorporated into assessments. 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2021 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2016 assessment • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT Assessment has not changed.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of non-indigenous/non-endemic species – number and abundance of introduced species". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT There are over 250 introduced marine plants and animals established in Australian waters (see marine pests.gov.au). Some have hitch-hiked to Australian waters on the hulls of vessels of all types from yachts to commercial ships, or in their ballast water. Others have been introduced to support local aquaculture, with the aquarium industry another vector. Some species are listed on the National Introduced Marine Pest Information System and are assessed under the ‘Number and abundance of NIMPIS-listed species’ assessment. This assessment covers those species not currently on the list. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT This assessment is based on peer-review papers and reports as well as information on the marine pests website: see http://www.marinepests.gov.au. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence or consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence or consensus too low to make an assessment CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The 2016 assessment is similar to the 2011 assessment. With very little information on most species abundances and no long-term monitoring of populations with which clear trends could be determined it was considered appropriate to assign a trend of ‘unclear’.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of quality of species and groups – sea snakes". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessing the status of sea snakes is a priority based on evidence of significant declines in some populations (e.g., Guinea 2007, 2013, Lukoschek et al. 2007, 2013). Australia has approximately 32 sea snake species, more than half of global diversity, including 13 endemic species. Sea snakes occur in a variety of shallow-water marine habitats in northern Australia, including estuaries, reefs, soft-sediment habitats, and seagrass meadows. Two endemic species are listed as Critically Endangered under the EPBC Act and IUCN Red List, a further two endemics listed as Endangered and Near Threatened by IUCN have not been assess under the EPBC Act. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT • Data primarily collected from an expert panel of sea snake researchers and marine resource managers during an IUCN Sea Snake Specialist Group Red List workshop in February 2009. • Updated status of sea snake populations from coastal WA and off-shore Timor Sea Reefs obtained from reports and publications by Michael Guinea, Vimoksalehi Lukoschek, Blanche D’Anastasi and Kate Sanders 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] Status and trends within the Australian EEZ are largely unknown but likely to vary between species and bioregions. Species have almost disappeared from Ashmore Reef, Timor Sea, the reasons for which are unknown. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Largely agrees with 2011 SOE assessment with the addition of the declines reported from the NW Shelf.