The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with climate change - ocean acidification". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE The uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the ocean results in changes in seawater chemistry, including a decrease in pH and dissolved carbonate ion concentrations, know as ocean acidification. Since pre-industrial times the pH of waters around Australia are estimated to have decreased between 0.08 and 0.10, consistent with global estimates of pH change. Superimposed on the large-scale change is much more variability at seasonal and local scales where natural processes can amplify or offset ocean acidification in a range of environments (Mongin et al., 2016; Walbusser et al, 2014; Shaw et al., 2012). The detection of trends and state in most coastal, shelf and subsurface waters around Australia is limited by lack of data. The pH and dissolved carbonate ion concentration of ocean waters around Australia will continue to decrease at the ocean takes up atmospheric CO2 emissions. The rates of change are linked to different emission scenarios (Lenton et al., 2015). Ocean acidification will persist for many millennia, even if emissions are reduced (e.g. Frolicher and Joos, 2010). Seasonal undersaturation of aragonite in surface waters of the Southern Ocean is predicted to occur by 2030 with consequences for calcifying organisms like pteropods (McNeil and Matear, 2008; Hauri et al., 2015). Ocean acidification is expected to lead to widespread shifts in ecosystems and puts at risk regional economies reliant on healthy and sustainable marine ecosystems such as tourism and aquaculture. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Offshore data from around Australia as described in Lenton et al 2015. Details of the specific data sets used to generate this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Very high impact Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT More data are now available.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with climate change - sea surface temperature". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Sea-surface temperature (SST) is a vital component of the marine ecosystem system as it exerts a major influence on the structure and function of the marine and atmospheric environment. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The majority of the assessment is based on data and analyses published in peer review papers. Some analyses of SST observations and model output have been included in the assessment. Details of specific data sets used to generate the assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Assessment grade: High impact. Sea surface temperature has continued to increase and extreme events have occurred in some regions. • Assessment trend: Deteriorating. Increasing sea surface temperature has significant impact on marine biodiversity and ocean health • Confidence grade: • Confidence trend: Adequate high-quality evidence or high level of consensus. Observations and models agree that sea surface temperature will continue to increase and extreme events may increase in frequency CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Grade and trends are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with climate change - oceanic dissolved oxygen and oxygen minimum zones in shelf and offshore regions". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Surface ocean salinity is largely reflective of the exchange of freshwater with the atmosphere, with areas of high surface salinity found in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Subduction of water from the ocean surface to the oceans interior transports surface salinity, resulting in salinity distributions of the oceans interior also reflecting surface rates of evaporation and precipitation. Melting and freezing of sea ice and glaciers also contributes to ocean salinity. Changes to salinity that may be driven by climate change have the potential to affect ocean circulation and stratification and contribute to sea level change. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Published papers and reports on ocean salinity and climate change. Details of the specific data sets used to generate this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence or high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence or high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are not comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Ocean salinity was assessed under state and trends of physical and chemical processes and discussed in the text in terms of the pressure climate change.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of climate variability and climate change". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT Anthropogenic ocean warming, superimposed on natural climate variations – in particular El Niño–Southern Oscillation and decadal variability – and ocean acidification pose risks to Australia’s coral reef ecosystems, giant kelp and other habitats. In response, there have been significant shifts in the ranges of various invertebrates and fish. Recent reviews of climate change impacts and adaptation on Australia’s commercial marine fisheries and marine ecosystems discuss the implications for marine management. On the Great Barrier Reef, rising summer sea temperatures and steadily increasing ocean acidity increase the risk of mass coral bleaching. The cumulative impacts of economic activities – port dredging and runoff of sediment, nutrients and fertiliser from agriculture, for example – cause coral reefs to become stressed and more prone to the effects of climate change. More broadly around Australia, ocean warming and changes in currents are affecting fisheries and aquaculture. World-leading research on these risks is ongoing through Australian universities and research institutes and in consequence the understanding of physical processes is high. Understanding of the economic and cultural significance of the marine environment for Australia is lower, but considerable value is attributed to coastal regions in temperate and tropical Australia. Understanding of the management strategies required to combat the risks is lower still due at least in part to its complexity. Research is ongoing, but a greater investment in developing, implementing and monitoring strategies, monitoring and understanding change, and systematic acquisition and storage of data, is required. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The assessment is based on published literature – a list is provided in the attached Expert Assessment. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Understanding of climate variability and its management is reasonably high and improving with government funding for well-established and internationally-respected institutions. • Planning associated with management of pressure: In-depth planning for icons such as the Great Barrier Reef continues, and commercial fisheries are aware of the need to plan around climate variability. Elsewhere efforts are more patchy. • Input for informing management of pressure: Short-term funding cycles are a continuing threat to effective management for long-term goals and sustainability. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Management tools and approaches exist and in some cases are applied; stronger regulation is required for long-term environmental health. • Outputs from management framework in place: Conflicting interests between economic development and the environment are leading to a gradual long-term environmental declines, which current management is not addressing. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Further policy and management controls are required to address declining environmental health and emerging risks of climate change. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Not specified. Review of additional literature has been conducted since 2011 SoE Assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine renewable energy generation". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Marine renewable energy generation is a fledgling industry in Australia. Presently, marine energy generator deployments are limited to two pre-commercial scale (small-scale, < 500kW) power stations, and a few experimental / prototype deployments. Any pressures on the marine environment associated with marine renewable energy generation are localised, and sparse. The marine renewable energy industry is an emerging industry globally. Numerous ocean energy technologies and devices are being developed around the world, and understanding of the environmental effects of these devices are dispersed among technology developers and countries. The environmental impacts of marine renewable energy are poorly known, and further research and understanding of the issue constitutes a major work programme of the International Energy Agency’s working group on Ocean Energy Systems (IEA-OES Annex IV – Assessment of Environmental Effects of and Monitoring Efforts for Ocean Wave, Tidal and Current Energy Systems) (NOTE: Australia has lapsed membership of IEA-OES). This task has focused on three interactions between marine energy devices and the marine environment: 1) The physical interactions between animals and tidal turbines; 2) The acoustic impact of marine energy devices on marine animals; and 3) the effects of energy removal on the physical environment. This task has identified and documented a growing database on the environmental effects of marine energy development. However, the working group summarise their Stage 1 final report by stating that ‘there continues to be a dearth of quantitative environmental information from tidal and wave devices that have been deployed in coastal waters’. Furthermore, they conclude ‘there are inadequate research and modelling data to adequately characterise the potential effects of marine energy devices, particularly at the large commercial scale’. The Australian marine renewable energy sector is predominantly focused on wave energy, with the focus being the large resource along the southern temperate coasts of Australia. There is a smaller tidal energy sector, where the predominant resource is located in tropical Northern waters (aside from localised areas adjacent to Bass Strait Islands). Through a number of commonwealth and industry funded activities, Australia is endeavouring to improve the knowledge base of the environmental effects of wave energy devices in these temperate environments. Whether these activities are applicable to large scale deployment (>100 MW capacity) is currently unclear. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessment of impacts of marine renewable energy is an emerging science. Few deployments are available in Australia, and assessment is largely derived from review of international scientific literature. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Very low Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very low Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT No change.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with climate change - oceanic dissolved oxygen and oxygen minimum zones in shelf and offshore regions". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE The ocean is undergoing physical and chemical changes as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere rise. These changes are warming the upper ocean, altering the upper ocean density structure and acidifying the oceans (see ocean sections). Oxygen is consumed in aerobic respiration and most marine ecosystems are composed of aerobic organisms that need oxygen to survive. Due to aerobic respiration, the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the ocean are lowest in the intermediate water (300 m to 1000 m). In coastal regions with limited circulation the biological consumption of oxygen can lower oxygen considerably. Global warming is projected to reduced the dissolved oxygen and lead to expansion of areas with low oxygen (Cocco et al., 2013). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Offshore data from around Australia from the latest CARS compilation (CARS2009a v1.1, as of 12 July 2010). See http://www.marine.csiro.au/atlas/ 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Unclear what data were used in the 2011 assessment; the 2016 assessment is based on the latest CARS compilations and so includes observations added to CARS 2011-2016.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "The state and trends of physical, biogeochemical and biological processes – Marine connectivity based on physical processes". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROCESS FOR EXPERT ASSESSMENT Marine biological connectivity around Australia is driven by physical processes such as winds, waves, tides and currents, that operate across a wide range of time and space scales. These water movements carry and disperse dissolved substances (nutrients and chemical pollutants) and particulates (sediments, marine debris and planktonic organisms) that are critical to the functioning of marine ecosystems. High connectivity can have positive or negative influences on ecosystem components depending on the circumstances, as can low connectivity (i.e. high retention). For example, transport of eggs and larvae from spawning grounds to nursery areas may be critical to successful breeding, but may also contribute to the spread of harmful species. Over Australia’s mid- and inner- continental shelves circulation and connectivity patterns tend to be dominated by wind and tidal influences, while the offshore environment is strongly influenced by major currents systems including the poleward flowing Leeuwin Current (LC) in the west and its extension along the southern Australian coast to Tasmania, and the East Australia Current (EAC) in the east. The strength of these currents varies with decadal forcing cycles, such as ENSO, SAM, and IOD, and in some locations there is also evidence of long-term connectivity change consistent with climate change. For example, increased southward flow of the EAC (Ridgway 2007) has been associated with major southward range extensions for almost 100 species (Frusher et al 2014; Sunday et al 2015). This represents a major increase in connectivity between northern and southern biological populations along the eastern seaboard. In contrast, this southern extension may have reduced connectivity in the south-to-north direction. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Published papers. CSIRO creates and maintains models used to study dispersal (Bluelink – BRAN product). IMOS holds data on ocean current strength, individual researchers hold data on species of interest. Report Cards have started to explicitly include connectivity as an indicator - http://ghhp.org.au/report-cards/2015/environmental. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Poor Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are not directly comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Connectivity – spatial/physical disjunctions Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus • 2011 • Connectivity – biological, migration, flyways Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus • 2011 • Connectivity – recruitment, settlement Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus • 2011 • Connectivity – genome structures, genetic adaptation Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade & trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Unclear how the 2011 assessment was done.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with anthropogenic noise". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE The main anthropogenic activities producing high levels of noise are seismic surveys of sub bottom strata (usually air gun arrays), sonars (military, scientific surveying, echo sounders), explosions (associated with military exercises and port construction), pile driving (wharf construction, offshore platforms), vessels (particularly dynamically positioned vessels), dredging and drill rig activities. Seismic surveys to date have been concentrated in the main oil and gas regions of the north west shelf and Bass Strait, military sonar concentrated in maritime exercise areas such as Sydney and Perth, dynamically positioned vessels are associated with offshore facilities and pile driving in port development areas such as the north west and north east. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT National oil and gas facility, seismic survey and shipping data, published papers and reports on exposure experiments and sound modelling. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low-High impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Not previously assessed CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Noise as a pressure on the marine environment was not assessed in 2011.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine debris". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Marine debris is recognized as a globally important stressor in the marine environment, with increasing reports of impacts on marine biodiversity reported during the last four decades (Gall and Thompson 2015) and upwards of 6-12 million metric tons of plastic waste entering the oceans each year (Jambeck et al. 2015). Marine litter includes consumer items such as glass or plastic bottles, cans, bags, balloons, rubber, metal, fiberglass, cigarettes and other manufactured materials that end up in the ocean and along the coast, and other materials intentionally or unintentionally discarded at sea. In Australia, marine debris has been identified as a key threatening process for threatened and endangered vertebrate fauna. Marine litter also has socioeconomic impacts, it acts as a transporter of invasive species, can be a navigation hazard and there are increasing concerns over the human health risks due to food security issues from seafood (Rochman et al. 2015). With estimates of ¾ or more of marine debris coming from land-based sources and continued growth in plastics production and usage, marine debris is a ubiquitous problem, with high but variable concentrations of marine debris found both in coastal and marine environments (Hardesty et al. 2014). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Concentrations derived from a single survey around Australian coastline and at sea, carried out between 2011-2013 as well as data and analyses presented in peer review publications, a recent review of the TAP for marine debris. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Marine debris was not included in 2011 assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with commercial fishing". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Australia’s wild-caught marine fisheries are highly diverse and contribute significantly to the economy. These fisheries catch scallops, prawns, crabs, squid, coastal fish such as whiting and flathead, reef fish such as coral trout, shelf and deepwater fish such as ling and blue-eye trevally, and oceanic tuna and billfish Although fisheries operate across all states and the Northern Territory and out to the limit of the Australian EEZ, fishing effort is not evenly distributed across Australian marine waters with the majority of fishing effort occurring in the North, Temperate East, South-East, and South-West Marine Regions. The impact of fisheries on the marine environment also varies with differing gears having differing impacts on species that might be caught as bycatch, and the habitats where fishing takes place. Methods used to capture those species are highly varied ranging from small-scale netting to large-scale pelagic long-line fishing and trawling (Flood et al. 2014). There is currently extensive effort occurring the Coral Sea bioregion using pelagic long – line gear. There have been extensive reductions in the footprint of the trawl fishery in the South West, South East and Temperate Eastern Bioregions. There is also an extensive trawl fishery in the North Bioregion, associated with the Northern Prawn Fishery, which remains relatively constant through time. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The metadata record for the fisheries data can be found at http://www.marlin.csiro.au/geonetwork/srv/eng/search?uuid=aa53a4df-7fe6-46d1-93b7-2d3732f4883e. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low-High Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are not comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Not directly comparable Assessment trend: Not directly comparable Confidence grade: Not directly comparable Confidence trend: Not directly comparable CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Commercial fishing was separated from recreational fishing and traditional use of resources.