The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine debris". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY Marine debris is recognized as a globally important stressor in the marine environment, with increasing reports of impacts on marine biodiversity reported during the last four decades and upwards of 6-12 million metric tons of plastic waste entering the oceans each year. However, this pressure was not included in the 2011 assessment, but was identified as an emerging issue in the previous SoE report. Marine litter includes consumer items such as glass or plastic bottles, cans, bags, balloons, rubber, metal, fiberglass, cigarettes and other manufactured materials that end up in the ocean and along the coast, and other materials intentionally or unintentionally discarded at sea. In Australia, marine debris has been identified as a key threatening process for threatened and endangered vertebrate fauna, with approximately ¾ of items found on beaches being comprised of plastic polymers. Marine litter also has socioeconomic impacts, it acts as a transporter of invasive species, can be a navigation hazard and there are increasing concerns over the human health risks due to food security issues from seafood. With estimates of ¾ or more of marine debris coming from land-based sources and continued growth in plastics production and usage, marine debris is a ubiquitous problem, with high but variable concentrations of marine debris found both in coastal and marine environments. PRESSURES/ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE Marine fauna as small as plankton and as large as cetaceans are known interact with marine debris; with entanglement, ingestion and chemical contamination the three main types of interaction. Corals, lugworms, molluscs, commercial fish, seabirds sea turtles, sea snakes, pinnipeds, whales and dolphins are all reported to be impacted by marine debris, with significant quantities of plastics reported in the digestive tracts of several species of marine vertebrates in Australian waters. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Concentrations [of marine debris] derived from a single survey around Australian coastline and at sea, carried out between 2011-2013 as well as data and analyses presented in peer review publications, a recent review of the TAP for marine debris.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Pressures on the marine environment associated with shipping". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its imports and exports. In 2013–14, approximately 1274 million tonnes of cargo were loaded and 151 million tonnes discharged at Australian wharves by 5499 vessels that made 28 714 port calls (BITRE 2015). As this shipping traverses Australian waters there is potential for adverse interactions with the marine environment across all regions (see Figure 1 in full case study attached). PRESSURES/ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE There is a risk of environmental damage from collision or grounding of vessels, and ship strike, which is a significant cause of anthropogenic mortality to whales worldwide. In addition, small recreational vessels regularly injure dugongs, turtles, and dolphins. Known Australian ship strike incidents in recent times have predominately involved humpback whales and based on behaviour and distribution there is potential for mother-calf pairs to be particularly susceptible. There have also been reported incidents with southern right whales, sperm whales and pygmy blue whales. Given the speed and size of modern shipping, collisions with whales have a high probability of being fatal. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Ship strike reports derived from the Australian Marine Mammal Centre National Marine Mammal Database, Vessel tracking data (AIS records).

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of marine debris". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT There is a good understanding of the potential sources of marine debris, however the distribution of various forms of marine debris in the marine environment is less well known although improving. Understanding of the impacts on the marine environment and knowledge of the key species at risk are improving and is an area of active research. In some cases predictions of impacts are made using limited scientific evidence, with available studies focused on acute impacts on individuals rather than long-term population consequences. Some work has been done in modelling the distribution and trajectories of marine debris, however there has been limited in-field verification of modelled outputs. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Data and analyses published in peer reviewed publications and agency reports. Details of the specific data sets used to generate this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Local sources of marine debris are well known with increasing understanding of sources from neighbouring areas; knowledge of impacts is increasing however requires a greater level of understanding. • Planning associated with management of pressure: International conventions addressing the release of marine debris are in place and there are some efforts to improve waste reception facilities at both local and neighbouring international ports, however there are few practical arrangements in place for comprehensive and coordinated mitigation. • Input for informing management of pressure: Waste management programs have been developed but are yet to be implemented into fishery management arrangements and identification of port waste reception facilities is currently voluntary. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Management frameworks for land based sources operate across multiple jurisdictions that are not coordinated and there is currently no clear management framework at the Australian government level. • Outputs from management framework in place: Measures made against the objectives of the Threat Abatement Plan have been identified as being ineffective at addressing threats associated with marine debris. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Marine debris continues to impact species and ecosystems with no decline in pressures on the marine environment. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The assessment is consistent with the assessment provided in the 2011 report.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with dumped wastes". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Dredging associated with the development or maintenance of port facilities around the coast of Australia is a necessary and unavoidable activity, vital to the continuity of the Australian economy. Disposal of dredged material is mostly commonly by placement on the sea floor in specially designated areas. By volume this is by far the largest pressure on the marine environment due to “dumped waste” and over the period from 2011 to 2016 totalled in the region of 90 million cubic meters of sediment (Ports Australia 2014, 2015). The areas selected as disposal sites and the nature of disposed dredged material at sea are highly regulated to minimise the risk of marine organisms being exposed to toxic materials and that the sites chosen are the most likely to be minimally affected by the application of additional sediment (Ports Australia 2014). Pressures arising from this practice include direct burial of biota as well as less direct impacts arising from resuspension of sediments placed on the sea floor. While the footprint of disposal sites is relatively small on the scale of Australia’s continental shelf, the area affected by remobilised material is potentially larger and less well known (McCook et al 2015). The amount of dredged material disposed of at sea in the 5 year period up to 2016 has increased markedly over that reported up to 2011 (Fig. 1). This is mainly due to two large port developments in north-western Australia’s Pilbara region (Gorgon and Wheatstone). Generally there appears to have been a strong upward trend in volumes in the Pilbara over the past decade and two new project approvals have been granted for a further 34 million cubic meters at Anketell Port and 42 million cubic meters at Port Hedland of dredging and disposal in the region. Given the decline in resource development experienced since 2014, this trend may abate in the short term. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Data used in assessment cover the entire continental coastal zone of Australia, and include all major ports. See "On-line resources" section of this record for links to specific data products. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trends are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT At sea dumping was not included in the 2011 SOE assessment as a separate section, where it is barely mentioned.

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment - marine plastics and debris". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Marine plastics and debris" DESCRIPTION OF PRESSURE Marine debris is recognized as a globally important stressor in the marine environment, with increasing reports of impacts on marine biodiversity reported during the last four decades (Claro et al. 2019; Gall and Thompson 2015) and an estimated 19-23 million metric tons (11% of plastic waste generated in 2016) entering aquatic environments (Borelle et al. 2020). This is an increase from the 6-12 million metric tons of plastic waste estimated to enter the ocean each year (as of 2010) (Jambeck et al. 2015). Furthermore, it is estimated that 1.2-2.4 million metric tonnes of plastic enters the global ocean each year from rivers alone (Lebreton et al. 2017). Marine litter includes consumer items such as glass or plastic bottles, cans, bags, balloons, rubber, metal, fiberglass, cigarettes and other manufactured materials that end up in the ocean and along the coast, and other materials intentionally or unintentionally discarded at sea (UNEP 2009). In Australia, marine debris has been identified as a key threatening process for threatened and endangered vertebrate fauna by the federal Threat Abatement Plan or TAP (Commonwealth of Australia 2018). Marine litter also has socioeconomic impacts, it acts as a transporter of invasive species, can be a navigation hazard and there are increasing concerns over the human health risks due to food security issues from seafood (Rochman et al. 2015). With estimates of ¾ or more of marine debris coming from land-based sources, and continued growth in plastics production and usage, waste leakage is a ubiquitous problem, with high but variable concentrations of marine debris found both in coastal and marine environments (Hardesty et al. 2014). Based on research in the great Australian Bight, it is estimated there is 25 or more times more microplastics alone on the seabed floor than floating on the ocean’s surface, with more than 14 million tonnes of debris across the ocean floor (Barrett et al., 2020). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Concentrations derived from a single survey around Australian coastline and at sea, carried out between 2011-2013 as well as data and analyses presented in peer review publications, a recent review of the TAP for marine debris. 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2021 • Assessment grade: High impact Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2016 assessment • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT No change in grade/trend from 2016 assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine mining". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE A wide variety of mineral resources exist within Australia’s maritime jurisdiction (see Table 1 in attached Expert Assessment). Mining of those resources however, remains an 'emerging industry'. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Published papers and reports. Assessment has been completed by literature review. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Climate and system variability as a pressure on the marine environment was not assessed in 2011.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with anthropogenic noise". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE The main anthropogenic activities producing high levels of noise are seismic surveys of sub bottom strata (usually air gun arrays), sonars (military, scientific surveying, echo sounders), explosions (associated with military exercises and port construction), pile driving (wharf construction, offshore platforms), vessels (particularly dynamically positioned vessels), dredging and drill rig activities. Seismic surveys to date have been concentrated in the main oil and gas regions of the north west shelf and Bass Strait, military sonar concentrated in maritime exercise areas such as Sydney and Perth, dynamically positioned vessels are associated with offshore facilities and pile driving in port development areas such as the north west and north east. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT National oil and gas facility, seismic survey and shipping data, published papers and reports on exposure experiments and sound modelling. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low-High impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Not previously assessed CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Noise as a pressure on the marine environment was not assessed in 2011.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with shipping". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its imports and exports. In 2013–14, approximately 1274 million tonnes of cargo were loaded and 151 million tonnes discharged at Australian wharves by 5499 vessels that made 28 714 port calls. As this shipping traverses Australian waters there is potential for adverse interactions with the marine environment across all regions (see Figure 1). Specifically, there is a risk of environmental damage from collision or grounding of vessels, and ship strike, which is a significant cause of anthropogenic mortality to whales worldwide. Also although not addressed specifically here it should be noted small recreational vessels regularly injure dugongs, turtles, and dolphins. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT • AIS: AIS data for 2014, coverage over all regions, based on CTS product from AMSA • Ship strike database: Coverage over all regions 1872-2015. For the assessment we mainly looked at post 2000 records. • Shipping statistics: Coverage over all regions from 1998-2013 (Predictions from infrastructure Australia used for 2014-2015 growth). 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: High level of consensus Confidence trend: High level of consensus Comparability: Comparable • 2011 • CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT The assessment is unchanged.

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment - shipping (marine vessel activity)". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Shipping (marine vessel activity)" DESCRIPTION OF PRESSURE Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its domestic freight and international imports and exports. Australia relies on sea transport for 99 per cent of its international trade (by volume) [1]. In the 2017/18 financial year approximately 1554 million tonnes of cargo were loaded (+21.9% increase since 2013/14), and 155 million tonnes discharged (+2.6%) at Australian wharves by 5859 vessels (+6.5%) that made 34,117 port calls (+18.8%) [2]. As well as commercial vessels, many smaller vessels use Australian waters and provide an important recreational pastime for many Australians. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT not supplied 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2021 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Limited Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2016 assessment • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: High level of consensus Confidence trend: High level of consensus Comparability: Comparable • 2011 • CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT No change.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with toxins, pesticides and herbicides". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE The group typically regarded as pollutants encompasses a large array of compounds and is generally divided into chemical compounds and metals. Estimates of the number of chemicals produced anthropogenically range as high as 100,000, however assessments of the toxicity and bioaccumulative nature of these are limited. Most research has only included a few classes of compounds, notably the halogenated hydrocarbons, a limited number of metals and polyaromatic and non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Most pollutants identified in marine animals are incorporated into tissues via dietary intake with many accumulating through the food web. Consequently, animals feeding at high trophic levels tend to have higher tissue concentrations than those feeding at lower trophic levels. Various pollutants have been reported to be associated with deleterious effects on the immune, endocrine and nervous systems of marine animals, resulting in disruption to growth, development, sexual differentiation and resistance to disease. However, direct associations between contaminants and these effects are few, and most studies lack substantive evidence of sublethal effects due to numerous confounding factors, both physiological and environmental in nature. This therefore limits quantification of the direct and indirect pressures pollutants may be exerting on the marine environment. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Published papers and reports. Assessment has been conducted by literature review. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Toxins, pesticides, herbicides was assessed under state and trends of physical and chemical processes rather than pressures.