The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment - shipping (marine vessel activity)". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Shipping (marine vessel activity)" DESCRIPTION OF PRESSURE Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its domestic freight and international imports and exports. Australia relies on sea transport for 99 per cent of its international trade (by volume) [1]. In the 2017/18 financial year approximately 1554 million tonnes of cargo were loaded (+21.9% increase since 2013/14), and 155 million tonnes discharged (+2.6%) at Australian wharves by 5859 vessels (+6.5%) that made 34,117 port calls (+18.8%) [2]. As well as commercial vessels, many smaller vessels use Australian waters and provide an important recreational pastime for many Australians. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT not supplied 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2021 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Limited Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2016 assessment • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low Assessment trend: Deteriorating Confidence grade: High level of consensus Confidence trend: High level of consensus Comparability: Comparable • 2011 • CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT No change.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Case Study "Pressures on the marine environment associated with shipping". The full Case Study, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Case Study are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOCUS OF THE CASE STUDY Australia as an island relies heavily on shipping for transportation of its imports and exports. In 2013–14, approximately 1274 million tonnes of cargo were loaded and 151 million tonnes discharged at Australian wharves by 5499 vessels that made 28 714 port calls (BITRE 2015). As this shipping traverses Australian waters there is potential for adverse interactions with the marine environment across all regions (see Figure 1 in full case study attached). PRESSURES/ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE There is a risk of environmental damage from collision or grounding of vessels, and ship strike, which is a significant cause of anthropogenic mortality to whales worldwide. In addition, small recreational vessels regularly injure dugongs, turtles, and dolphins. Known Australian ship strike incidents in recent times have predominately involved humpback whales and based on behaviour and distribution there is potential for mother-calf pairs to be particularly susceptible. There have also been reported incidents with southern right whales, sperm whales and pygmy blue whales. Given the speed and size of modern shipping, collisions with whales have a high probability of being fatal. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN CASE STUDY Ship strike reports derived from the Australian Marine Mammal Centre National Marine Mammal Database, Vessel tracking data (AIS records).

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with commercial fishing". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Australia’s wild-caught marine fisheries are highly diverse and contribute significantly to the economy. These fisheries catch scallops, prawns, crabs, squid, coastal fish such as whiting and flathead, reef fish such as coral trout, shelf and deepwater fish such as ling and blue-eye trevally, and oceanic tuna and billfish Although fisheries operate across all states and the Northern Territory and out to the limit of the Australian EEZ, fishing effort is not evenly distributed across Australian marine waters with the majority of fishing effort occurring in the North, Temperate East, South-East, and South-West Marine Regions. The impact of fisheries on the marine environment also varies with differing gears having differing impacts on species that might be caught as bycatch, and the habitats where fishing takes place. Methods used to capture those species are highly varied ranging from small-scale netting to large-scale pelagic long-line fishing and trawling (Flood et al. 2014). There is currently extensive effort occurring the Coral Sea bioregion using pelagic long – line gear. There have been extensive reductions in the footprint of the trawl fishery in the South West, South East and Temperate Eastern Bioregions. There is also an extensive trawl fishery in the North Bioregion, associated with the Northern Prawn Fishery, which remains relatively constant through time. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The metadata record for the fisheries data can be found at http://www.marlin.csiro.au/geonetwork/srv/eng/search?uuid=aa53a4df-7fe6-46d1-93b7-2d3732f4883e. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low-High Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are not comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Not directly comparable Assessment trend: Not directly comparable Confidence grade: Not directly comparable Confidence trend: Not directly comparable CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Commercial fishing was separated from recreational fishing and traditional use of resources.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with recreational fishing". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Australia’s marine recreational fishery applies substantial pressure to specific species and taxa. For some targeted species harvest can exceed the take of the commercial fishery. For instance recreational tonnage of southern sand flathead in Tasmania in 2012/13 was six times that of the commercial fishery (Lyle et al., 2014), while the estimated recreational harvest of King George whiting in South Australia in 2013/14 was 1.46 million fish or 367 tonnes, which was more than half (58%) of the total harvest (Hall and Giti, 2015). While participation rates remain high in absolute terms for WA, NSW, QLD and TAS there has been a trend of declines in effort, participation and harvest. In contrast in South Australia there was an increase in participation but a decline in effort and harvest. For VIC expert opinion suggests an increase across all fishery metrics while for NT effort and participation has increased but harvest has declined. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Expert opinion and state assessment reports were sourced from all states. 14 interviews were conducted with experts based in all states. While more interviews would have been useful to better gauge perception the high level picture was easily discernible. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: High impact Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are not comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT N/A

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of marine management of shipping". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE BEING MANAGED, AND ITS IMPACT A total of 26936 ships arrived at Australian ports during 2014, 9.8% of those arrived at Port Hedland, 9.3% at Brisbane, 8.1% at Newcastle, 7.3% at Melbourne and 6.8% at Dampier. --Operational discharges-- Environmental regulation of shipping is regularly reviewed and amended to strengthen environment protection and reduce the environmental impact of shipping globally through the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Some recent amendments to international law of significance include: • MARPOL Annex V amendments which tighten the controls on discharge of garbage at sea. • Amendments to Annex VI of MARPOL which introduces technical and operational controls on greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping. --Marine invasive species-- Due to a range of concerns about technical feasibility and efficacy of the available technology, the 2004 International Convention on the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments is yet to enter into force. The required entry into force criteria (ratification by 30 States, representing 35% of world tonnage) is likely to be met in 2016 which means that the convention will enter into force in 2017. The International Guidelines for the Control and Management of Ships' Biofouling to Minimize the Transfer of Invasive Aquatic Species, were adopted in 2011. While voluntary, the Guidelines provide a basis upon which to further promote a best practice approach to biofouling management for the prevention of marine pest incursions. A review of Commonwealth marine pest policy in Australian has recently been concluded which, along with the implementation of the new Biosecurity Act 2015, should lead to some advances in and a more nationally consistent approach to domestic marine pest policy and legislation relating to shipping. --Domestic shipping management-- A number of significant changes have taken place since 2011 in relation to the management of shipping around the Australian coast with a view to increasing environmental protection. • Designation of the Coral Sea Particularly Sensitive Sea Area • Extension of the Great Barrier Reef compulsory pilotage area • Review of the National Plan for Maritime Environmental Emergencies • Development of the North East Shipping Management Plan DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Data contained in sectoral reports, information on national and international guidelines, protocols and the MARPOL convention. Details of the specific data sets used to generate this assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Understanding of pressure: Good understanding of potential impacts. • Planning associated with management of pressure: Good level of national and international coordination to manage impacts. • Input for informing management of pressure: Strong management systems remain in place. • Processes associated with developing, monitoring, and updating management: Shipping management systems continue to provide effective protection in most areas, with some gaps relating to marine pest management. • Outputs from management framework in place: Ongoing management is needed to ensure that best practice procedures remain in place. • Outcomes of management framework in place: Shipping management needs to be adaptable to changing shipping patterns. CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT New guidelines have been developed, a new biosecurity

The Marine chapter of the 2021 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Effectiveness of Management – Shipping (marine vessel activity)". A PDF of the full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided) is downloadable in the "On-line Resources" section of this record as "EXPERT ASSESSMENT 2021 - Effectiveness of Management - Shipping" DESCRIPTION OF THE APPROACH TO MANAGING THE PRESSURE The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the United Nations agency responsible for safety, security and pollution prevention for international shipping. Australia is a signatory to key IMO conventions relating to maritime safety and environmental protection. The Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) is the federal agency responsible for maritime safety and environmental protection in Australian waters and works with other countries through the IMO. In Australia, Federal and State Governments work together in the control, risk reduction and risk response measures to manage shipping activity. The National Plan for Maritime Environmental Emergencies (AMSA 2020) sets out the cooperative arrangements in place to respond to maritime emergencies and incidents affecting the environment. Shipping in the Great Barrier Reef Region is well managed by AMSA, Maritime Safety Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and guided by the North East Shipping Management Plan. Management protections and controls in place include REEFVTS vessel management system and designation as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (GBRMPA 2019). Interactions between marine fauna and shipping is largely addressed by the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment under the EPBC Act. AMSA provides guidance to the shipping industry on practices to avoid interactions between shipping and marine fauna. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT no specific data streams used 2021 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Approach • Assessment grade: Very effective Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Adequate Comparability with 2016: Comparable • Outputs • Assessment grade: Effective Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Adequate Comparability with 2016: Comparable • Outcomes • Assessment grade: Effective Assessment trend: Improving Confidence grade: Adequate Confidence trend: Adequate Comparability with 2016: Comparable CHANGES SINCE 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT The assessment has not changed since 2016.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine debris". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Marine debris is recognized as a globally important stressor in the marine environment, with increasing reports of impacts on marine biodiversity reported during the last four decades (Gall and Thompson 2015) and upwards of 6-12 million metric tons of plastic waste entering the oceans each year (Jambeck et al. 2015). Marine litter includes consumer items such as glass or plastic bottles, cans, bags, balloons, rubber, metal, fiberglass, cigarettes and other manufactured materials that end up in the ocean and along the coast, and other materials intentionally or unintentionally discarded at sea. In Australia, marine debris has been identified as a key threatening process for threatened and endangered vertebrate fauna. Marine litter also has socioeconomic impacts, it acts as a transporter of invasive species, can be a navigation hazard and there are increasing concerns over the human health risks due to food security issues from seafood (Rochman et al. 2015). With estimates of ¾ or more of marine debris coming from land-based sources and continued growth in plastics production and usage, marine debris is a ubiquitous problem, with high but variable concentrations of marine debris found both in coastal and marine environments (Hardesty et al. 2014). DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Concentrations derived from a single survey around Australian coastline and at sea, carried out between 2011-2013 as well as data and analyses presented in peer review publications, a recent review of the TAP for marine debris. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Confidence trend: Adequate high quality evidence and high level of consensus Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Marine debris was not included in 2011 assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with climate change - sea surface temperature". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Sea-surface temperature (SST) is a vital component of the marine ecosystem system as it exerts a major influence on the structure and function of the marine and atmospheric environment. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT The majority of the assessment is based on data and analyses published in peer review papers. Some analyses of SST observations and model output have been included in the assessment. Details of specific data sets used to generate the assessment have not been provided. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • Assessment grade: High impact. Sea surface temperature has continued to increase and extreme events have occurred in some regions. • Assessment trend: Deteriorating. Increasing sea surface temperature has significant impact on marine biodiversity and ocean health • Confidence grade: • Confidence trend: Adequate high-quality evidence or high level of consensus. Observations and models agree that sea surface temperature will continue to increase and extreme events may increase in frequency CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Grade and trends are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine mining". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE A wide variety of mineral resources exist within Australia’s maritime jurisdiction (see Table 1 in attached Expert Assessment). Mining of those resources however, remains an 'emerging industry'. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Published papers and reports. Assessment has been completed by literature review. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Low impact Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are somewhat comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very good Assessment trend: Stable Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Limited evidence or limited consensus CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT Climate and system variability as a pressure on the marine environment was not assessed in 2011.

The Marine chapter of the 2016 State of the Environment (SoE) report incorporates multiple expert templates developed from streams of marine data. This metadata record describes the Expert Assessment "Pressures on the marine environment associated with marine renewable energy generation". The full Expert Assessment, including figures and tables (where provided), is attached to this record. Where available, the Data Stream(s) used to generate this Expert Assessment are accessible through the "On-line Resources" section of this record. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESSURE Marine renewable energy generation is a fledgling industry in Australia. Presently, marine energy generator deployments are limited to two pre-commercial scale (small-scale, < 500kW) power stations, and a few experimental / prototype deployments. Any pressures on the marine environment associated with marine renewable energy generation are localised, and sparse. The marine renewable energy industry is an emerging industry globally. Numerous ocean energy technologies and devices are being developed around the world, and understanding of the environmental effects of these devices are dispersed among technology developers and countries. The environmental impacts of marine renewable energy are poorly known, and further research and understanding of the issue constitutes a major work programme of the International Energy Agency’s working group on Ocean Energy Systems (IEA-OES Annex IV – Assessment of Environmental Effects of and Monitoring Efforts for Ocean Wave, Tidal and Current Energy Systems) (NOTE: Australia has lapsed membership of IEA-OES). This task has focused on three interactions between marine energy devices and the marine environment: 1) The physical interactions between animals and tidal turbines; 2) The acoustic impact of marine energy devices on marine animals; and 3) the effects of energy removal on the physical environment. This task has identified and documented a growing database on the environmental effects of marine energy development. However, the working group summarise their Stage 1 final report by stating that ‘there continues to be a dearth of quantitative environmental information from tidal and wave devices that have been deployed in coastal waters’. Furthermore, they conclude ‘there are inadequate research and modelling data to adequately characterise the potential effects of marine energy devices, particularly at the large commercial scale’. The Australian marine renewable energy sector is predominantly focused on wave energy, with the focus being the large resource along the southern temperate coasts of Australia. There is a smaller tidal energy sector, where the predominant resource is located in tropical Northern waters (aside from localised areas adjacent to Bass Strait Islands). Through a number of commonwealth and industry funded activities, Australia is endeavouring to improve the knowledge base of the environmental effects of wave energy devices in these temperate environments. Whether these activities are applicable to large scale deployment (>100 MW capacity) is currently unclear. DATA STREAM(S) USED IN EXPERT ASSESSMENT Assessment of impacts of marine renewable energy is an emerging science. Few deployments are available in Australia, and assessment is largely derived from review of international scientific literature. 2016 SOE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY [see attached Expert Assessment for full details] • 2016 • Assessment grade: Very low Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Comparability: Grade and trend are comparable to the 2011 assessment • 2011 • Assessment grade: Very low Assessment trend: Unclear Confidence grade: Limited evidence or limited consensus Confidence trend: Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment CHANGES SINCE 2011 SOE ASSESSMENT No change.