Field Methods: My work will test three predictions: (1) Hemlock decline alters nutrient cycling and decomposition rates. (2) Hemlock decline alters plant and soil communities, including microbial (bacteria and fungi) and soil arthropods (ants). (3) Hemlock decline and ant interactions with ecosystem processes will vary across elevation. To test my predictions, I will establish a series of 10- 20 m2 plots throughout the GSMNP to inventory and monitor hemlock stands. I will choose sites across a gradient of elevation throughout the park. Additionally I will classify each site based on its hemlock mortality (calculated using the percent of the hemlock crown remaining). Vegetation sampling: All overstory trees within plots will be identified to species and the diameter at breast height measured. All shrubs and tree saplings will be identified to species and the density of individual stems will be calculated. All hemlock seedlings within the plots will be counted. Within each of these 20 m2 plots, 10 randomly stratified 1 m2 subplots will be established for understory woody vegetation, herbs, and ferns, which will be identified to species, and percent groundcover will be estimated to determine density. I will compare community composition, richness, and structure (for the overstory trees) across each of the 20 m2 plots. Soil community sampling: To assess the soil community I will remove soil cores, sample ants, and take measurements of soils in situ at three locations within each 20 m2 plot. To monitor the ant community, I will lay out 10 pitfall traps within each plot, which will be left open for 48 hours. After this time, pitfall traps will be collected and taken to my lab to have the contents sorted and ants identified to species. I will collect 3 soil core samples per plot, to determine the abundance of soil microbial communities using qPCR, and to determine enzyme activity and microbial biomass in the soil. Soil samples will be taken back to the lab for detailed nutrient analysis including total nutrient content, nitrogen mineralization, and carbon evolution. Hemlock leaf litter will be collected and used to measure decomposition rates, using decomposition bags. Nine decomposition bags will be placed within each of the 20 m2 plots, and three bags will be removed after 3, 9, and 15 months. I will also collect in situ soil measurements including soil moisture, temperature, and respiration using a Li-Cor, and measurements will be compared across plots.

Field Methods: My work will test three predictions: (1) Hemlock decline alters nutrient cycling and decomposition rates. (2) Hemlock decline alters plant and soil communities, including microbial (bacteria and fungi) and soil arthropods (ants). (3) Hemlock decline and ant interactions with ecosystem processes will vary across elevation. To test my predictions, I will establish a series of 10- 20 m2 plots throughout the GSMNP to inventory and monitor hemlock stands. I will choose sites across a gradient of elevation throughout the park. Additionally I will classify each site based on its hemlock mortality (calculated using the percent of the hemlock crown remaining). Vegetation sampling: All overstory trees within plots will be identified to species and the diameter at breast height measured. All shrubs and tree saplings will be identified to species and the density of individual stems will be calculated. All hemlock seedlings within the plots will be counted. Within each of these 20 m2 plots, 10 randomly stratified 1 m2 subplots will be established for understory woody vegetation, herbs, and ferns, which will be identified to species, and percent groundcover will be estimated to determine density. I will compare community composition, richness, and structure (for the overstory trees) across each of the 20 m2 plots. Soil community sampling: To assess the soil community I will remove soil cores, sample ants, and take measurements of soils in situ at three locations within each 20 m2 plot. To monitor the ant community, I will lay out 10 pitfall traps within each plot, which will be left open for 48 hours. After this time, pitfall traps will be collected and taken to my lab to have the contents sorted and ants identified to species. I will collect 3 soil core samples per plot, to determine the abundance of soil microbial communities using qPCR, and to determine enzyme activity and microbial biomass in the soil. Soil samples will be taken back to the lab for detailed nutrient analysis including total nutrient content, nitrogen mineralization, and carbon evolution. Hemlock leaf litter will be collected and used to measure decomposition rates, using decomposition bags. Nine decomposition bags will be placed within each of the 20 m2 plots, and three bags will be removed after 3, 9, and 15 months. I will also collect in situ soil measurements including soil moisture, temperature, and respiration using a Li-Cor, and measurements will be compared across plots.

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park contains over 800 acres of old growth eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), more than any National Park Service unit. Called the “redwood of the east” eastern hemlock grows to it’s grandest proportions in the Smokies. Hemlock forests are widely distributed over almost 90,000 additional acres in the park. Some of the largest and oldest eastern hemlocks known grow in the Smokies, commonly exceeding 150 feet tall, six feet in diameter, and may reach 500 years of age. Old-growth forests of the park have become increasingly important in recent years as harbors of biodiversity, as preferred habitat of neotropical bird species, for research of forest dynamics, and for recreation and aesthetics. Hemlock has been shown to moderate stream temperatures summer and winter thereby easing heat and cold stress on aquatic organisms. A variety of birds, mammals, invertebrates, and plants are associated with hemlock and hemlock-dominated communities. Hemlock’s dense canopy provides food, shelter, and breeding sites across the seasons. Scientists have found that 16 of 30 species of breeding birds were significantly correlated with hemlock. In 2002 the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), native to Asia, was identified in the park. The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) is a small “aphid-like” insect that covers itself in a white, waxy, “wool” which acts as a protective coating. HWA infestations can be easily recognized by the appearance of tiny “cotton balls” at the base of hemlock needles. The “wool” is most conspicuous on the underside of the branch Fall through Spring. The HWA feeds on the sap at the base of the needles, disrupting nutrient flow to the foliage. The needles eventually change from deep green to an ashen gray and then fall off. Without needles the tree starves to death in as little as three to five years. This insect has now been identified throughout the park and has the potential to eliminate hemlock trees from the landscape. Shenandoah National Park has lost almost 95% of their hemlocks due to HWA. Hemlocks in developed areas and backcountry sites accessible by administrative roads are treated with insecticidal soap or horticultural oils. Sprayed from truck-mounted spray units, these sprays smother and dry-out the adelgids on contact. Generally, developed areas are easily accessible by vehicles allowing for the use of high pressure sprayers. The equipment adequately sprays up to 80 feet into the canopy of large roadside trees and allows efficient treatment of areas of smaller trees. This method controls only the insects that are residing on the tree at the time of application and requires retreatment every six months to one year. Hemlocks that are too tall to be adequately treated with foliar spray, are near campsites, or are large high value trees, are treated with a systemic insecticide (imidacloprid) through soil drenching or injecting directly into the trunk. Technicians temporarily remove the duff (organic matter) layer from around the base of the tree then pour an imidacloprid and water mixture around the base of the tree within a foot of the trunk. The organic matter is then replaced. The results of insecticidal treatments have been dramatic. Trees with ashen gray foliage prior to treatment recover their color and produce new growth. Releases of predatory beetles as a biocontrol began in 2002. Entomologists at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville started rearing beetles and supplying the park in 2004. These beetles feed exclusively on HWA. It will take several years before the beetles become established at a level where they can control HWA populations. Although it is too early assess the overall success of this biocontrol, preliminary monitoring results are encouraging. Although the adelgid will fundamentally and forever alter hemlock forests of the Smokies, with continued funding, dedicated staff, and committed partners, future visitors to the park will still be able to marvel at

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park contains over 800 acres of old growth eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), more than any National Park Service unit. Called the “redwood of the east” eastern hemlock grows to it’s grandest proportions in the Smokies. Hemlock forests are widely distributed over almost 90,000 additional acres in the park. Some of the largest and oldest eastern hemlocks known grow in the Smokies, commonly exceeding 150 feet tall, six feet in diameter, and may reach 500 years of age. Old-growth forests of the park have become increasingly important in recent years as harbors of biodiversity, as preferred habitat of neotropical bird species, for research of forest dynamics, and for recreation and aesthetics. Hemlock has been shown to moderate stream temperatures summer and winter thereby easing heat and cold stress on aquatic organisms. A variety of birds, mammals, invertebrates, and plants are associated with hemlock and hemlock-dominated communities. Hemlock’s dense canopy provides food, shelter, and breeding sites across the seasons. Scientists have found that 16 of 30 species of breeding birds were significantly correlated with hemlock. In 2002 the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), native to Asia, was identified in the park. The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) is a small “aphid-like” insect that covers itself in a white, waxy, “wool” which acts as a protective coating. HWA infestations can be easily recognized by the appearance of tiny “cotton balls” at the base of hemlock needles. The “wool” is most conspicuous on the underside of the branch Fall through Spring. The HWA feeds on the sap at the base of the needles, disrupting nutrient flow to the foliage. The needles eventually change from deep green to an ashen gray and then fall off. Without needles the tree starves to death in as little as three to five years. This insect has now been identified throughout the park and has the potential to eliminate hemlock trees from the landscape. Shenandoah National Park has lost almost 95% of their hemlocks due to HWA. Hemlocks in developed areas and backcountry sites accessible by administrative roads are treated with insecticidal soap or horticultural oils. Sprayed from truck-mounted spray units, these sprays smother and dry-out the adelgids on contact. Generally, developed areas are easily accessible by vehicles allowing for the use of high pressure sprayers. The equipment adequately sprays up to 80 feet into the canopy of large roadside trees and allows efficient treatment of areas of smaller trees. This method controls only the insects that are residing on the tree at the time of application and requires retreatment every six months to one year. Hemlocks that are too tall to be adequately treated with foliar spray, are near campsites, or are large high value trees, are treated with a systemic insecticide (imidacloprid) through soil drenching or injecting directly into the trunk. Technicians temporarily remove the duff (organic matter) layer from around the base of the tree then pour an imidacloprid and water mixture around the base of the tree within a foot of the trunk. The organic matter is then replaced. The results of insecticidal treatments have been dramatic. Trees with ashen gray foliage prior to treatment recover their color and produce new growth. Releases of predatory beetles as a biocontrol began in 2002. Entomologists at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville started rearing beetles and supplying the park in 2004. These beetles feed exclusively on HWA. It will take several years before the beetles become established at a level where they can control HWA populations. Although it is too early assess the overall success of this biocontrol, preliminary monitoring results are encouraging. Although the adelgid will fundamentally and forever alter hemlock forests of the Smokies, with continued funding, dedicated staff, and committed partners, future visitors to the park will still be able to marvel at

Wildflower phenology data recorded from 13 plots of 2 meter square, at The Purchase area and near Chimneys Picnic Area. Most data involve species in bloom and number of blooms per species per square, but other phenophases are also recorded on flowering and non-flowering plants for most plots. Chimneys Picnic Area data extends back to 2000, Purchase data to 2011 (previously certified).

Wildflower phenology data recorded from 13 plots of 2 meter square, at The Purchase area and near Chimneys Picnic Area. Most data involve species in bloom and number of blooms per species per square, but other phenophases are also recorded on flowering and non-flowering plants for most plots. Chimneys Picnic Area data extends back to 2000, Purchase data to 2011 (previously certified).

Nighttime roadside spotlight counts of white-tailed deer in Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Nighttime roadside spotlight counts of white-tailed deer in Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountains National Park

This database contains all long-term vegetation monitoring data related to elk (Cervus elaphus) reintroduction and management in GRSM. Each vegetation plot consists of an exclosure plot and a paired control plot. Also included in the database are all data related to exclosure damage from tree fall or other disturbance and exclosure repairs. All work has been performed by GRSM Resource Management & Science staff.

This database contains all long-term vegetation monitoring data related to elk (Cervus elaphus) reintroduction and management in GRSM. Each vegetation plot consists of an exclosure plot and a paired control plot. Also included in the database are all data related to exclosure damage from tree fall or other disturbance and exclosure repairs. All work has been performed by GRSM Resource Management & Science staff.